Prior to independence from the United Kingdom, there were several anti-colonial groups in Myanmar, which protested against British rule over the country. This became especially prevalent in WWII, when the Empire of Japan promised an "independent" Myanmar (though under the status of a puppet state under Japan), and appointed Ba Maw as its head of state. During this period, left wing groups such as the Communist Party of Burma (CPB; also known as the Burma Communist Party) and ethnic minority insurgent groups such as the Karen National Union (KNU) began to emerge in opposition to both the British and Japanese.
"They Go Back": Insurgents of the Communist Party of Burma walk back to their bases after failed peace talks. (1963)
After Myanmar gained independence in 1948, communists and ethnic minorities in the country grew discontent for the newly formed post-independence government, as they believed that they were being unfairly excluded from governing the country. For example, it was noted that many Christian Karen military officials, whom were originally appointed by the British, were replaced with Buddhist Bamars by the new parliament. In the early 1960s. the government refused to adopt a federal system, to the dismay of insurgent groups such as the CPB, who proposed adopting the system during peace talks. By the early 1980s, politically motivated armed insurgencies had largely disappeared, while ethnic-based insurgencies continued.
Several insurgent groups have negotiated ceasefires and peace agreements with successive governments, which until political reforms starting in 2011, had largely fallen apart.
The conflict is generally divided into three parts: Insurgencies during the post-independence period under parliamentary rule (1948–1962), insurgencies during post 1962 coup military rule under General Ne Win during the Cold War (1962–1988), and insurgencies in the during the modern post Cold War era, first under military (Tatmadaw) rule (1988–2011), and now currently under the new elected government.
Post-independence conflict (1948–1962)
Following independence, the two largest anti-government factions in Myanmar were the communists, led by the Communist Party of Burma (CPB), and ethnic Karen insurgents, led by the Karen National Union (KNU). Both groups had fought the government prior to independence, and had also fought Japanese forces during their occupation of Myanmar in World War II.
During the post-independence period, the KNU favoured an independent state, administered by the Karen people. The proposed state would be forged out of Karen State (now known as Kayin State) and Karenni State (now known as Kayah State), in Outer Myanmar (Lower Burma). The KNU has since shifted their focus from full independence to regional autonomy, under a federal system with fair Karen representation in the government.
Post-coup conflict (1962–1988)
After three successive parliamentary governments had governed Myanmar, the Tatmadaw (Myanmar Armed Forces), led by General Ne Win, enacted a coup d'état in 1962, which ousted the parliamentary government, and replaced it with a military junta. Accusations of severe human rights abuses and violations followed afterwards, and the cabinet of the parliamentary government and political leaders of ethnic minority groups were arrested and detained without trial. Around this period, other ethnic minority groups began forming larger rebel factions, such as the Kachin Independence Army, in response to the new government's refusal to adopt a federal government structure.
Both immediately after the coup and again in 1972, General Ne Win held peace talks with opposition forces, but both times they fell apart, partly due to General Ne Win's refusal to adopt a multi-party system. After negotiations failed, defectors from the Tatmadaw and rebel insurgents walked back to their bases, with headlines across Myanmar famously reading "They Go Back". Private property was confiscated by the government, and the Burmese Socialist Programme Party (BSPP) was founded in 1974 to govern the country under a one-party system. Under General Ne Win's 26 year dictatorship, Myanmar became an isolated hermit kingdom, and became one of the least developed countries in the world. In 1988, nationwide student protests resulted in the BSPP and General Ne Win being ousted and replaced with a new military regime, the State Peace and Development Council.
On 8 August 1988, students began demonstrating in Yangon (Rangoon) against General Ne Win's rule, and the disastrous Burmese Way to Socialism system. The protests spread across the country, The uprising ended on 18 September 1988, after a military coup was enacted by the State Law and Order Restoration Council (SLORC), and Ne Win was overthrown.
Authorities in Myanmar claimed that around 350 people were killed, whilst others claimed thousands died in the protests, with a high number of deaths attributed to the military. According to the Economist, over 3,000 people were killed in the public uprising. As a result of the uprising, the new government agreed to sign separate peace treaties with certain insurgent groups. Because the 1988 uprising was mostly politically motivated, ethnic rebel groups did not receive much support from ruling or opposition political parties in Myanmar. The Tatmadaw severely weakened ethnic rebel groups, destroying most of their bases and strongholds in the 1990s.
Mae La Camp, Tak, Thailand, one of the largest of nine UNHCR camps in Thailand where over 700,000 refugees, asylum seekers, and stateless persons have fled.
Post-Cold War conflict (1988–present)
In 2006, the Tatmadaw (Myanmar Armed Forces) conducted an immense offensive against the Karen National Union (KNU) in Kayin State, which resulted in the displacement of hundreds of thousands of civilians. One estimate claimed that approximately half a million people were displaced due to fighting between government forces and the KNU, and forcible relocation of villages by the government.
In August 2007, approximately 160,000 refugees had fled to nine refugee camps along the Thai-Myanmar border, and the Thai border provinces of Chiang Mai and Ratchaburi. Approximately 62% of the refugee population consisted of people from the Karen ethnic minority. Humanitarian organisations such as Doctors without borders have since sent assistance and support to the refugees.
In 2011, the Tatmadaw launched a military offensive named Operation Perseverance against insurgents in Shan State. During the offensive, the Tatmadaw captured territory from the National Democratic Alliance Army (NDAA) and the Shan State Army - North (SSA-N), with the SSA-N being involved in most of the fighting. The offensive was in response to the groups' rejections of the junta's "One Nation, One Army" policy.
In 2007, hundreds of thousands of monks defied the military government's rule, but were severely cracked down upon. In 2010, the government introduced a new constitution, and Aung San Su Kyi and thousands of other political prisoners were released.
On 19 November 2014, government forces attacked the Kachin Independence Army's headquarters near the city of Laiza, killing at least 22 KIA insurgents, according to the government.
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